Different methods and settings for glucose monitoring for women with gestational diabetes during pregnancy

What is the issue?

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a glucose intolerance leading to high concentrations of glucose (sugar) in the blood (hyperglycaemia) that begins or is first recognised during pregnancy. Monitoring of blood glucose levels is an important way to maintain control of sugar concentrations in the blood. There are several different methods for monitoring blood glucose which can be carried out in different settings (e.g. at home or hospital), however it is not clear which is best for limiting health complications for women and their babies.

Why is this important?

Women with GDM are more likely to develop pre-eclampsia (a dangerous condition characterised by high blood pressure) during pregnancy, and to have the birth induced, suffer trauma to the perineum during birth, or to give birth by caesarean section. Their babies are more likely to be large for their gestational age at birth, develop low blood sugar (hypoglycaemia), and suffer from complications leading to death. Both the women and their babies are more likely to develop long-term health complications, including type 2 diabetes.

What evidence did we find?

We searched the medical literature in September 2016 and included 11 randomised controlled trials (RCTs) involving 1272 women with GDM and their babies. Three trials were supported by commercial partners.

We included five different comparisons:

1) telemedicine (transmission of glucose concentrations from home to healthcare professionals for review) versus standard care (face-to-face review in a clinic/hospital) (five RCTs);

2) self-monitoring of glucose (at home) versus periodic monitoring of glucose (less frequently at face-to-face visits) (two RCTs);

3) use of a continuous glucose monitoring system (CCMS) versus less frequent self-monitoring of glucose (two RCTs);

4) modem technology (transmitting glucose concentrations directly from glucose meters to healthcare professionals) versus telephone transmission of glucose concentrations (one RCT);

5) postprandial (after meal) versus preprandial (before meal) monitoring of glucose (one RCT).

Telemedicine versus standard care for glucose monitoring (five RCTs): there were no clear differences between women in the telemedicine and standard care groups for pre-eclampsia or hypertension, caesarean section or induction of labour; or for their babies being born large-for-gestational age, developing a serious morbidity, or having hypoglycaemia. There were no deaths in the two RCTs that reported on deaths of babies.

Self-monitoring versus periodic glucose monitoring (two RCTs): there were no clear differences between women in the self-monitoring and periodic glucose monitoring groups for pre-eclampsia or caesarean section; or for their babies dying, being born large-for-gestational age, or developing hypoglycaemia.

CGMS versus self-monitoring of glucose (two RCTs): there was no clear difference between women in the CGMS and self-monitoring groups for caesarean section; or for babies being born large-for-gestational age, or developing hypoglycaemia. There were no deaths of babies in the two RCTs.

Modem versus telephone transmission for glucose monitoring (one RCT): this RCT reported none of the outcomes we considered most important.

Postprandial versus preprandial glucose monitoring (one RCT): there were no clear differences between women in the postprandial and preprandial glucose monitoring groups for pre-eclampsia, caesarean section or perineal trauma; or for babies developing hypoglycaemia. Babies born to women in the postprandial glucose monitoring group were less likely to be born large-for-gestational age than babies in the preprandial group.

The quality of the evidence for the above findings was low or very low. None of the 11 RCTs reported on postnatal depression, postnatal weight retention, return to pre-pregnancy weight, or development of type 2 diabetes for the women; or disability, adiposity or development of type 2 diabetes for the babies as children or adults.

What does this mean?

Blood glucose monitoring is an important strategy for managing GDM, however it remains unclear what methods are best. Conclusive evidence from RCTs is not yet available to guide practice, although a range of methods has been investigated. Few RCTs have compared the same or similar interventions, RCTs have been small and have reported limited findings. Further large, well-designed, RCTs are required to assess the effects of different methods and settings for blood glucose monitoring for women with GDM in order to improve outcomes for women and their babies in the short and long term.

Authors' conclusions: 

Evidence from 11 RCTs assessing different methods or settings for glucose monitoring for GDM suggests no clear differences for the primary outcomes or other secondary outcomes assessed in this review.

However, current evidence is limited by the small number of RCTs for the comparisons assessed, small sample sizes, and the variable methodological quality of the RCTs. More evidence is needed to assess the effects of different methods and settings for glucose monitoring for GDM on outcomes for mothers and their children, including use and costs of health care. Future RCTs may consider collecting and reporting on the standard outcomes suggested in this review.

Read the full abstract...
Background: 

Incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is increasing worldwide. Blood glucose monitoring plays a crucial part in maintaining glycaemic control in women with GDM and is generally recommended by healthcare professionals. There are several different methods for monitoring blood glucose which can be carried out in different settings (e.g. at home versus in hospital).

Objectives: 

The objective of this review is to compare the effects of different methods and settings for glucose monitoring for women with GDM on maternal and fetal, neonatal, child and adult outcomes, and use and costs of health care.

Search strategy: 

We searched the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group Trials Register (30 September 2016) and reference lists of retrieved studies.

Selection criteria: 

Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) or quasi-randomised controlled trials (qRCTs) comparing different methods (such as timings and frequencies) or settings, or both, for blood glucose monitoring for women with GDM.

Data collection and analysis: 

Two authors independently assessed study eligibility, risk of bias, and extracted data. Data were checked for accuracy.

We assessed the quality of the evidence for the main comparisons using GRADE, for:

- primary outcomes for mothers: that is, hypertensive disorders of pregnancy; caesarean section; type 2 diabetes; and

- primary outcomes for children: that is, large-for-gestational age; perinatal mortality; death or serious morbidity composite; childhood/adulthood neurosensory disability;

- secondary outcomes for mothers: that is, induction of labour; perineal trauma; postnatal depression; postnatal weight retention or return to pre-pregnancy weight; and

- secondary outcomes for children: that is, neonatal hypoglycaemia; childhood/adulthood adiposity; childhood/adulthood type 2 diabetes.

Main results: 

We included 11 RCTs (10 RCTs; one qRCT) that randomised 1272 women with GDM in upper-middle or high-income countries; we considered these to be at a moderate to high risk of bias. We assessed the RCTs under five comparisons. For outcomes assessed using GRADE, we downgraded for study design limitations, imprecision and inconsistency. Three trials received some support from commercial partners who provided glucose meters or financial support, or both.

Main comparisons

Telemedicine versus standard care for glucose monitoring (five RCTs): we observed no clear differences between the telemedicine and standard care groups for the mother, for:

- pre-eclampsia or pregnancy-induced hypertension (risk ratio (RR) 1.49, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.69 to 3.20; 275 participants; four RCTs; very low quality evidence);

- caesarean section (average RR 1.05, 95% CI 0.72 to 1.53; 478 participants; 5 RCTs; very low quality evidence); and

- induction of labour (RR 1.06, 95% CI 0.63 to 1.77; 47 participants; 1 RCT; very low quality evidence);

or for the child, for:

- large-for-gestational age (RR 1.41, 95% CI 0.76 to 2.64; 228 participants; 3 RCTs; very low quality evidence);

- death or serious morbidity composite (RR 1.06, 95% CI 0.68 to 1.66; 57 participants; 1 RCT; very low quality evidence); and

- neonatal hypoglycaemia (RR 1.14, 95% CI 0.48 to 2.72; 198 participants; 3 RCTs; very low quality evidence).

There were no perinatal deaths in two RCTs (131 participants; very low quality evidence).

Self-monitoring versus periodic glucose monitoring (two RCTs): we observed no clear differences between the self-monitoring and periodic glucose monitoring groups for the mother, for:

- pre-eclampsia (RR 0.17, 95% CI 0.01 to 3.49; 58 participants; 1 RCT; very low quality evidence); and

- caesarean section (average RR 1.18, 95% CI 0.61 to 2.27; 400 participants; 2 RCTs; low quality evidence);

or for the child, for:

- perinatal mortality (RR 1.54, 95% CI 0.21 to 11.24; 400 participants; 2 RCTs; very low quality evidence);

- large-for-gestational age (RR 0.82, 95% CI 0.50 to 1.37; 400 participants; 2 RCTs; low quality evidence); and

- neonatal hypoglycaemia (RR 0.64, 95% CI 0.39 to 1.06; 391 participants; 2 RCTs; low quality evidence).

Continuous glucose monitoring system (CGMS) versus self-monitoring of glucose (two RCTs): we observed no clear differences between the CGMS and self-monitoring groups for the mother, for:

- caesarean section (RR 0.91, 95% CI 0.68 to 1.20; 179 participants; 2 RCTs; very low quality evidence);

or for the child, for:

- large-for-gestational age (RR 0.67, 95% CI 0.43 to 1.05; 106 participants; 1 RCT; very low quality evidence) and

- neonatal hypoglycaemia (RR 0.79, 95% CI 0.35 to 1.78; 179 participants; 2 RCTs; very low quality evidence).

There were no perinatal deaths in the two RCTs (179 participants; very low quality evidence).

Other comparisons

Modem versus telephone transmission for glucose monitoring (one RCT): none of the review's primary outcomes were reported in this trial

Postprandial versus preprandial glucose monitoring (one RCT): we observed no clear differences between the postprandial and preprandial glucose monitoring groups for the mother, for:

- pre-eclampsia (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.15 to 6.68; 66 participants; 1 RCT);

- caesarean section (RR 0.62, 95% CI 0.29 to 1.29; 66 participants; 1 RCT); and

- perineal trauma (RR 0.38, 95% CI 0.11 to 1.29; 66 participants; 1 RCT);

or for the child, for:

- neonatal hypoglycaemia (RR 0.14, 95% CI 0.02 to 1.10; 66 participants; 1 RCT).

There were fewer large-for-gestational-age infants born to mothers in the postprandial compared with the preprandial glucose monitoring group (RR 0.29, 95% CI 0.11 to 0.78; 66 participants; 1 RCT).